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Learning Objectives
- Draw Lewis structures for molecules.
For very simple molecules and molecular ions, we can write the Lewis structures by merely pairing up the unpaired electrons on the constituent atoms. See these examples:
For more complicated molecules, it is helpful to follow the step-by-step procedure outlined here:
- Arrange the atoms to show specific connections. When there is a central atom, it is usually the least electronegative element in the compound. Chemists usually list this central atom first in the chemical formula (as in CCl4 and CO32−, which both have C as the central atom), which is another clue to the compound’s structure. Hydrogen and the halogens are almost always connected to only one other atom, so they are usually terminal rather than central.
- Determine the total number of valence electrons in the molecule or ion. Add together the valence electrons from each atom. (Recall that the number of valence electrons is indicated by the position of the element in the periodic table.) If the species is a polyatomic ion, remember to add or subtract the number of electrons necessary to give the total charge on the ion. For CO32−, for example, we add two electrons to the total because of the −2 charge.
- Place a bonding pair of electrons between each pair of adjacent atoms to give a single bond. In H2O, for example, there is a bonding pair of electrons between oxygen and each hydrogen.
- Beginning with the terminal atoms, add enough electrons to each atom to give each atom an octet (two for hydrogen). These electrons will usually be lone pairs.
- If any electrons are left over, place them on the central atom. We will explain later that some atoms are able to accommodate more than eight electrons.
- If the central atom has fewer electrons than an octet, use lone pairs from terminal atoms to form multiple (double or triple) bonds to the central atom to achieve an octet. This will not change the number of electrons on the terminal atoms.
Now let’s apply this procedure to some particular compounds.
The central atom is usually the least electronegative element in the molecule or ion; hydrogen and the halogens are usually terminal.
The \(H_2O\) Molecule
- Because H atoms are almost always terminal, the arrangement within the molecule must be HOH.
- Each H atom (group 1) has 1 valence electron, and the O atom (group 16) has 6 valence electrons, for a total of 8 valence electrons.
- Placing one bonding pair of electrons between the O atom and each H atom gives H:O:H, with 4 electrons left over.
- Each H atom has a full valence shell of 2 electrons.
- Adding the remaining 4 electrons to the oxygen (as two lone pairs) gives the following structure:
Because this structure gives oxygen an octet and each hydrogen two electrons, we do not need to use step 6.
The \(OCl^−\) Ion
- With only two atoms in the molecule, there is no central atom.
- Oxygen (group 16) has 6 valence electrons, and chlorine (group 17) has 7 valence electrons; we must add one more for the negative charge on the ion, giving a total of 14 valence electrons.
- Placing a bonding pair of electrons between O and Cl gives O:Cl, with 12 electrons left over.
- If we place six electrons (as three lone pairs) on each atom, we obtain the following structure:
Each atom now has an octet of electrons, so steps 5 and 6 are not needed. The Lewis electron structure is drawn within brackets as is customary for a molecular ion, with the overall charge indicated outside the brackets, and the bonding pair of electrons is indicated by a solid line. OCl− is the hypochlorite ion, the active ingredient in chlorine laundry bleach and swimming pool disinfectant.
The \(CH_2O\) Molecule
1. Because carbon is less electronegative than oxygen and hydrogen is normally terminal, C must be the central atom. One possible arrangement is as follows:
2. Each hydrogen atom (group 1) has one valence electron, carbon (group 14) has 4 valence electrons, and oxygen (group 16) has 6 valence electrons, for a total of [(2)(1) + 4 + 6] = 12 valence electrons.
3. Placing a bonding pair of electrons between each pair of bonded atoms gives the following:
Six electrons are used, and 6 are left over.
4. Adding all 6 remaining electrons to oxygen (as three lone pairs) gives the following:
Although oxygen now has an octet and each hydrogen has 2 electrons, carbon has only 6 electrons.
5. There are no electrons left to place on the central atom.
6. To give carbon an octet of electrons, we use one of the lone pairs of electrons on oxygen to form a carbon–oxygen double bond:
Both the oxygen and the carbon now have an octet of electrons, so this is an acceptable Lewis electron structure. The O has two bonding pairs and two lone pairs, and C has four bonding pairs. This is the structure of formaldehyde, which is used in embalming fluid.
Example \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Write the Lewis electron structure for each species.
- NCl3
- S22−
- NOCl
Given: chemical species
Asked for: Lewis electron structures
Strategy:
Use the six-step procedure to write the Lewis electron structure for each species.
Solution:
- Nitrogen is less electronegative than chlorine, and halogen atoms are usually terminal, so nitrogen is the central atom. The nitrogen atom (group 15) has 5 valence electrons and each chlorine atom (group 17) has 7 valence electrons, for a total of 26 valence electrons. Using 2 electrons for each N–Cl bond and adding three lone pairs to each Cl account for (3 × 2) + (3 × 2 × 3) = 24 electrons. Rule 5 leads us to place the remaining 2 electrons on the central N:
Nitrogen trichloride is an unstable oily liquid once used to bleach flour; this use is now prohibited in the United States.
- In a diatomic molecule or ion, we do not need to worry about a central atom. Each sulfur atom (group 16) contains 6 valence electrons, and we need to add 2 electrons for the −2 charge, giving a total of 14 valence electrons. Using 2 electrons for the S–S bond, we arrange the remaining 12 electrons as three lone pairs on each sulfur, giving each S atom an octet of electrons:
- Because nitrogen is less electronegative than oxygen or chlorine, it is the central atom. The N atom (group 15) has 5 valence electrons, the O atom (group 16) has 6 valence electrons, and the Cl atom (group 17) has 7 valence electrons, giving a total of 18 valence electrons. Placing one bonding pair of electrons between each pair of bonded atoms uses 4 electrons and gives the following:
Adding three lone pairs each to oxygen and to chlorine uses 12 more electrons, leaving 2 electrons to place as a lone pair on nitrogen:
Because this Lewis structure has only 6 electrons around the central nitrogen, a lone pair of electrons on a terminal atom must be used to form a bonding pair. We could use a lone pair on either O or Cl. Because we have seen many structures in which O forms a double bond but none with a double bond to Cl, it is reasonable to select a lone pair from O to give the following:
All atoms now have octet configurations. This is the Lewis electron structure of nitrosyl chloride, a highly corrosive, reddish-orange gas.
Exercise \(\PageIndex{1}\)
Write Lewis electron structures for CO2 and SCl2, a vile-smelling, unstable red liquid that is used in the manufacture of rubber.
Answer
1.
2.
